Category Archives: Fuel Cells

January 20, 2009: Scientists have always wanted to take a closer look at biological systems and materials. From the magnifying glass to the electron microscope, they have developed ever-increasingly sophisticated imaging devices.

Now, Niels de Jonge and colleagues at Vanderbilt University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), add a new tool to the biology-watcher’s box. In the online early edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, they describe a technique for imaging whole cells in liquid with a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM).

“Electron microscopy is the most important tool for imaging objects at the nano-scale — the size of molecules and objects in cells,” said de Jonge, who is an assistant professor of Molecular Biology & Biophysics at Vanderbilt and a staff scientist at ORNL. But electron microscopy requires a high vacuum, which has prevented imaging of samples in liquid, such as biological cells.

The new technique, liquid STEM, uses a microfluidic device with electron transparent windows to enable the imaging of cells in liquid. In the PNAS article, the investigators demonstrate imaging of individual molecules in a cell, with significantly improved resolution (the fineness of detail in the image) and speed compared to existing imaging methods.

“Liquid STEM has the potential to become a versatile tool for imaging cellular processes on the nanometer scale,” de Jonge said. “It will potentially be of great relevance for the development of molecular probes and for the understanding of the interaction of viruses with cells.”

The technique will also become a resource for energy science, as researchers use it to visualize processes that occur at liquid: solid interfaces, for example in lithium ion batteries, fuel cells, or catalytic reactions.

“Our key innovation with respect to other techniques for imaging in liquid is the combination of a large volume that will accommodate whole cells, a resolution of a few nanometers, and fast imaging of a few seconds per image,” de Jonge said.

January 16, 2009: Microfluidics, a subsidiary of Microfluidics International Corp., has filed for a patent on its Microfluidics Reaction Technology (MRT), which will enable companies and research organizations to develop and manufacture smaller-sized nanoparticles than previously possible and to do so more efficiently than with other methods, according to a company news release.

The technology was presented at the Nano Science and Technology Institute (NSTI) Nanotech 2007 and 2008 conferences and won a Nano 50 award in 2007 as one of the most innovative ideas that will revolutionize nanotechnology in the near-term and beyond.

The patent covers processors, processes, and applications that are used to produce nanoparticles at high volume, high purity, and low cost. MRT can also be used for synthesis of fine chemicals through single or multiphase chemical reactions or physical processes such as crystallization. Another key use is process intensification, or combining chemical processes in ways that increase manufacturing efficiency, reduce energy use, and result in purer products.

MRT has a wide range of applications, including production of pharmaceutical nanosuspensions and of nanomaterials that are used for fuel cells and photovoltaics. It is particularly applicable for those pharmaceutical applications where the trend is to go to very small particles that have precise polymorph control. Microfluidics has demonstrated MRT by creating nanosuspensions of a variety of injectable or inhalable drugs, including cancer therapies, antibiotics, antihistamines, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, among others.

By Fréderic Breussin, Yole Développement

The ‘energy gap’ in portable electronics makes micro fuel cells increasingly attractive. However, the technology adaptation has been delayed due to high costs, lack of standards, and low reliability. Over the last year, tremendous improvements have been made to the technology in terms of reliability and miniaturization. To enter the market, many players are developing fuel cell chargers for electronic devices such as mobile phones and PDAs. Among the current major players in this field (MTI, Angstrom, Toshiba, and others), Medis Technologies is the first company to launch a consumer product in the market, while others are not expected before the end of 2008.

Figure 1 gives an overview of some power devices available on the market or under development. Note that UltraCell developed a device specific to military applications that is extremely robust and can deliver relatively high power, but it is not well-suited to portable consumer applications due to its size and weight.


Figure 1: Fuel cell chargers availabe or under development
Click here to enlarge image

The interest in the Medis Technologies Power Pack application (bottom-left of Fig.1) resides in the compactness of the energetic solution, which is very easy to use. In fact, this self-powered fuel cell can be used without external gases except the oxygen in the air. Consequently, this solution can be adapted to many potential markets. This device is not refillable, which means that it has to be disposed after use and has therefore must be low-cost. It has a power capacity of 20Wh and is able to perform up to 15 cell-phone charging operations, which is equivalent to 20 AA batteries, for half their weight and approximately the same volume occupation.


Figure 2: Medis Power Pack.
Click here to enlarge image

To better understand how Medis Technology has been able to put a consumer product on the market more than a year earlier than its competitors, we proceeded together with SYSTEMPlus Consulting to a complete technical and cost analysis of this product. This analysis provides answer to the following questions:

  • How does the Medis fuel cell works, and what does it contain?
  • How can Medis Technologies provide a low-cost disposable fuel cell charger?
  • How does this technology compare to the competing products under development?
  • Is the technology safe and reliable?
  • How could this technology be improved in the future?

The Medis Fuel Cell is an alkaline borohydride fuel cell that includes three tanks (Figure 2): one filled with water, one with KOH electrolyte, and the third with a gel mixing NaBH4 and KOH. The working principle of an alkaline fuel cell is illustrated in Figure 3. In this particular case, the sodium borohydride NaBH4 breaks down on contact with water according to the following reaction:

NaBH4 + 2H2O -> NaBO2 + 4H2

This reaction enables creation of H2 gas for the catalytic reaction on the anode level. Reaction at the cathode level occurs with oxygen coming from ambient air.

The design relies on cheap materials and an optimized manufacturing line. The result is an estimated manufacturing cost near US$5, with 40% for the electrodes, 20% for the fluids, 20% for the plastic parts and connections, and 20% for assembly.


Figure 3: Alkaline fuel cell principle.
Click here to enlarge image

Further information is published in a Yole Développement study, “Medis Power Pack: Micro fuel cell technical and cost analysis,” which provides an overview of the competitive landscape of fuel cell chargers, and a complete description of the technology, including working principle, technical analysis and pictures of the main parts, with chemical analyses of the different fluids used, as well as the material analyses of the electrodes. The report also includes a detailed cost analysis of the product (quoting electronics (PCB and connectors), liquids and gel, electrodes, plastic parts, and assembly), and an overview of the advantages and limitations of the product, with suggestions to improve its performance.

Fréderic Breussin started his career as project leader in the power industry. In 2004 he became business developer at TNL (NL) with special attention to microfluidic devices, micro reactors, sensors, and precision instruments. He joined Yole Développement in 2007 as project manager, microfluidics.

By Peter Podesser, SFC Smart Fuel Cell AG

Fuel cells have long been hailed as an environmentally friendly, silent, and efficient energy source for powering a diverse number of applications off the grid. While many fuel cell technologies are still in prototype testing, mobile and portable direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) already demonstrate that they can solve a wide range of energy supply problems that industrial and government operators of remote systems face everyday.

Before the advent of fuel cells it was nearly impossible to power remote devices reliably around the clock, seven days a week. Batteries died quickly, solar cells were too unreliable in bad weather, and generators were noisy, required high maintenance, and were banned in many places for environmental reasons. Consequently, operators often had to commit personnel, equipment, and logistic resources to ensure 24/7 operation of their off-grid devices. In some cases this meant flying out fresh batteries by helicopter twice a week; in other cases, such as in national parks and reserves, teams of rangers would have to hike for days with heavy batteries in their backpacks to especially remote sites where sensors, measuring units, or cameras operated. Where generators were the primary power source, trucking in maintenance supplies and fuel was labor-intensive and costly, apart from the fact that generators are noisy and produce noxious exhausts. Moreover, each of these systems had a heightened risk of discovery during battery replacement or refuelling, which increased the possibility of sabotage, theft, and vandalism.

DMFCs are a cost-effective, clean, and safe alternative wherever off-grid and reliable power availability is required. They use liquid alcohol methanol, a fuel with a very high energy density, to produce power. Ten liters contain a capacity of over 11kWh at a mere weight of 8.4kg, enabling operators to keep a large storage of energy at the site without minimal logistic and maintenance effort–the same amount of energy stored in a battery would weigh 279kg, and 10 liters of methanol can power a 10W device continuously for six weeks maintenance-free.

Intelligent power concept

The EFOY (“Energy For You”) fuel cell, developed by Smart Fuel Cell, is an intelligent energy source. In combination with a standard battery-powered system or a solar-powered system, the fuel cell’s integrated charge control constantly monitors the charge level of the battery. Whenever this drops below a pre-defined level, the DMFC automatically starts operation and recharges the battery. Once the battery is full again, the fuel cell returns to standby mode. Worry-free remote monitoring provides assurance that the fuel cell is doing its job, even when the operator is miles away. Since it can charge standard batteries directly, it easily integrates into existing facilities. Operation is intuitive, either on site directly or remotely, by means of a GSM modem.

DMFCs generate electricity completely independent of the environment. They will produce power continuously as long as there is fuel. If necessary, they can work 24 hours a day at temperatures ranging from -20°C to 45°C. The fuel cell itself remains maintenance-free throughout its entire life; the only maintenance required is infrequent fuel cartridge replacement.

Environmentally friendly power and proven safety

Power generation in a DMFC produces only carbon dioxide and water vapor, in amounts comparable to a child’s breath. The fuel cells thus meet the strictest environmental regulations.

These fuel cells and cartridges also conform to the highest international safety standards. They have received numerous certifications, such as the TUEV GS seal, the TUEV SUED, Octagon Quality Seal “Tested fuel cell system” by Germany’s TUEV SUED Industry Service GmbH (the EU’s counterpart of Underwriter Laboratories Inc.), and the cNRTLus approval on the EFOY fuel cells, which certifies the products’ compliance with recognized UL safety standards. Every EFOY product is authorized for transport by land, sea, or air.

Paving the way toward micro/nano applications

While miniaturized fuel cells as part of mobile phones or laptops are still in the experimental phase, EFOY fuel cells are evolving toward smaller and portable form factors. The portable Jenny fuel cell, which is being used and tested by defense organizations in the US and Europe, weighs only 1.3kg and is about the size of a quart of milk. Very quiet in operation, orientation-independent, and small enough to be worn in a jacket or a backpack, it provides 25W nominal power to a battery. While the system is currently used only in defense applications, the technology could also be used to produce portable charge stations that power a wide range of portable systems such as mobile phones, PDAs, laptops, and GPS systems. With an SFC power management system, the charge station would be able to automatically recognize the voltage demands of the individual devices and adapt the output power accordingly.

Dr. Peter Podesser is CEO of Germany fuel-cell developer Smart Fuel Cell AG. He also was a co-author of the first edition of MANCEF’s (Micro- and Nanotechnology Commercialization Education Foundation) International Micro/Nano Roadmap.

How DMFC fuel cells work

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The EFOY fuel cell transforms chemical energy directly into electrical energy. The transformation is highly efficient and involves no moving parts, making it a particularly effective source of power.


Diagram of a direct-methanol fuel cell
Click here to enlarge image

At the heart of every EFOY fuel cell is the stack. The stack actually consists of several cells: an anode, a cathode and a membrane that acts as an electrolyte, separating the anode and the cathode from each other. Methanol and water are introduced on the anode side while ambient oxygen enters the cathode side. Protons (positively charged H+ ions), free electrons, and carbon dioxide arise on the anode side. While the protons can permeate the membrane, the electrons have to travel an electrical circuit over to the cathode side, thereby producing electrical current. H+ ions and oxygen form water vapor on the cathode side, making EFOY fuel cells an extremely environmentally friendly way to generate electricity.

November 26, 2008: Dr. Joseph Riemer, president of Sono-Tek Corp. presented two ultrasonic systems — the SonicSyringe ultrasonic atomization dispersion syringe pump, and the Ultrasonic atomization spray nozzle — at the sixth annual National Nano Engineering Conference, (NNEC) in Boston. The two systems provide solutions for accurately and cost effectively dispensing and depositing nanomaterials on target substrate, and are enabling companies that use nanomaterials to take their products to the market faster and at lower costs.

When conventional mixing devices and pumps are used for dispensing nanoparticles, they tend to agglomerate and separate from the liquid suspension. The SonicSyringe imparts ultrasonic energy which breaks down and eliminates agglomerates that have formed during earlier handling. Nanoparticles are continuously suspended in a uniform and homogenous mixture, thus guaranteeing a steady state dispensing process.

When conventional pressure spray coating and web printing technologies are used to coat nanoparticles on substrates, their uniformity control is limited and the amount of nanomaterial which must be used is excessive and costly. Sono-Tek’s ultrasonic spray nozzles can uniformly and accurately coat a very thin layer of nanoparticles on substrates of different shapes, forms, and sizes.

Examples of successfully commercialized applications include: fuel cells, solar panels, biodegradable food packaging, functional textiles, specialty glass and biological and chemical sensors.

“We have embarked on an aggressive business development program which began last year, introducing new patent pending applications and diversifying into new industries,” said Dr. Christopher L. Coccio, chairman and CEO of Sono-Tek.

October 14, 2008: QuantumSphere Inc., a developer of advanced catalyst materials, high performance electrodes, and related technologies and systems for portable power and clean-energy applications, has been awarded a grant by the United States Army for the development of advanced fuel cell technology that improves efficiency, integration and portability and reduces costs for portable power applications.

Under the Army’s Small Business Innovation Research Program, QuantumSphere will develop a unitized reformed methanol fuel cell. In the first, nine-month phase of the project, the company will be awarded $120,000 to investigate the synthesis and electrochemistry of bifunctional anodes, high temperature electrolyte membranes and low-cost cathode catalysts for a 5W fuel cell.

If successful, QuantumSphere will move to the second phase of the project, a two-year $750,000 effort to develop a 200W methanol reforming fuel cell in a smaller, lighter form factor to power portable electronic devices in the Army’s Future Force Warrior program. The fuel cell is intended to help soldiers operate portable electronic devices without the noise and heat signatures produced by diesel generators.

“Based on our research and our technology background, we feel the goals of the first phase of the project are quite feasible for the development of new materials in highly portable unitized methanol fuel cells,” said Subra Iyer, principal technologist for QuantumSphere. “In the first phase, we will be working on synthesizing some of the high-temperature electrolytes needed for the fuel cell and we have several indications of why we feel this approach will work. In the second phase, we will work on improving the power efficiency and operational issues of this technology that will enable the Army to mount these fuel cells on trucks and provide silent power without the use of diesel generators.”

August 18, 2008 — Gasification for the production of biofuel’s is getting a new look from researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Ames Laboratory and Iowa State University. By combining gasification with high-tech nanoscale porous catalysts, they hope to create ethanol from a wide range of biomass, including distiller’s grain left over from ethanol production, corn stover from the field, grass, wood pulp, animal waste, and garbage.
The advantage of gasification compared to fermentation technologies is that it can be used in a variety of applications, including process heat, electric power generation, and synthesis of commodity chemicals and fuels.

“There was some interest in converting syngas into ethanol during the first oil crisis back in the 70s,” said Ames Lab chemist and chemical and biological science program director Victor Lin. “The problem was that catalysis technology at that time didn’t allow selectivity in the byproducts. They could produce ethanol, but you’d also get methane, aldehydes and a number of other undesirable products.”

A catalyst is a material that facilitates and speeds up a chemical reaction without chemically changing the catalyst itself. In studying the chemical reactions in syngas conversion, Lin found that the carbon monoxide molecules that yielded ethanol could be “activated” in the presence of a catalyst with a unique structural feature. “If we can increase this ‘activated’ CO adsorption on the surface of the catalyst, it improves the opportunity for the formation of ethanol molecules,” Lin said. “And if we can increase the amount of surface area for the catalyst, we can increase the amount of ethanol produced.”

Lin’s group looked at using a metal alloy as the catalyst. To increase the surface area, they used nano-scale catalyst particles dispersed widely within the structure of mesoporous nanospheres, tiny sponge-like balls with thousands of channels running through them. The total surface area of these dispersed catalyst nanoparticles is roughly 100 times greater than the surface area you’d get with the same quantity of catalyst material in larger, macro-scale particles.
It is also important to control the chemical makeup of the syngas. Researchers at ISU’s Center for Sustainable Environmental Technologies , or CSET, have spent several years developing fluidized bed gasifiers to provide reliable operation and high-quality syngas for applications ranging from replacing natural gas in grain ethanol plants to providing hydrogen for fuel cells.

“Gasification to ethanol has received increasing attention as an attractive approach to reaching the Federal Renewable Fuel Standard of 36 billion gallons of biofuel,” said Robert Brown, CSET director.
“The great thing about using syngas to produce ethanol is that it expands the kinds of materials that can be converted into fuels,” Lin said. “You can use the waste product from the distilling process or any number of other sources of biomass, such as switchgrass or wood pulp. Basically any carbon-based material can be converted into syngas. And once we have syngas, we can turn that into ethanol.” The research is funded by the DOE’s Offices of Basic Energy Sciences and Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.

Ames Laboratory is a U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science laboratory operated for the DOE by Iowa State University. The Lab conducts research into various areas of national concern, including the synthesis and study of new materials, energy resources, high-speed computer design, and environmental cleanup and restoration .

By Arthur L. Chait, EoPlex
Batteries are everywhere, powering everything from laptops to greener vehicles. The first dry-cell batteries were mass-produced in 1896. Today’s batteries are vast improvements over these early products. Panasonic recently claimed the Guinness record for longest-life alkaline battery with the Evolta that powered a robot for seven hours as it climbed out of the Grand Canyon.

Unfortunately, batteries have two significant drawbacks: limited energy and fixed life. Limited energy is a problem in critical applications and fixed life is an environmental issue, since 15 billion batteries are used each year. Rechargeable batteries help, but they contain elements which are more toxic unless recycled properly. Battery limitations can be critical, but there is an alternative.

One example of critical battery limitations is providing power for tire pressure sensors (TPS). TPS became mandated after a series of fatal accidents in the 1990’s were linked to low tire pressure. All new cars in the USA must now be equipped with TPS. This saves lives and also saves billions of gallons of oil, since MPG drops with under-inflated tires.

TPS requires a way to get power to the sensor, as well as information from that sensor inside a spinning tire. Current systems use batteries to power both the sensor and the wireless transmitter. In mild climates with good roads, batteries may last as long as advertised, but with extreme climates and poor roads, some TPS will fail prematurely.

Even routine battery replacement may be a headache for consumers. TPS are sealed for protection and the entire unit must be replaced when the batteries die. TPS maintenance costs are estimated at $1000 over the life of a vehicle. A growing concern is that high costs and early failures will result in drivers choosing not to have sensors replaced. When this happens, the safety and fuel economy anticipated from the legislation will be lost.

An alternative to batteries is needed. One approach is to harvest the vehicle’s vibration energy. Piezoelectric materials transform vibrations into electricity and offer a low-cost way to harvest energy. The best piezoelectric is PZT, commonly used to generate sparks in lighters and gas igniters. Advantages of an energy harvester include:

  • Long life: the harvester could last the life of the vehicle.
  • Low cost: no maintenance costs to replace dead units.
  • Greener: each harvester replaces many batteries that often end up as landfill.

    Figure 1 shows a harvester consisting of layers of PZT and metal bonded in a bimorph structure. The bimorph is fixed at one end and vibrates like a tuning fork. Electricity generated is stored in a capacitor for several seconds until it reaches a level sufficient to power the TPS. The harvester needs to be rugged, light weight and small &#151 about the size of a penny. Manufacturing such a product is a challenge with conventional techniques and this has kept harvesters off the market.

    Figure 1: Piezo harvester. (Source: EoPlex)

    A second example is powering emergency radios. Events like 9/11 and Katrina showed that high-powered radios, required by first responders, need more energy. The military has a similar requirement, since most soldiers carry 20 lbs. of batteries along with their other gear.The only way to assure that enough power will be available is to carry spare batteries, adding to the load. A way is needed to carry more power without extra weight.

    Some types of fuel cells can meet this need. Unfortunately, the power required demands a fuel cell that runs on hydrogen. Carrying hydrogen is dangerous and support systems are complex. This problem can be solved if a miniature chemical reactor, called a reformer, is built into each fuel cell. A reformer produces hydrogen from a water-alcohol mixture, which supplies five to ten times more energy than an equal weight of most batteries. It can also be carried and refueled safely.

    Designing a miniature reformer is easy, but building it with current technology is either impossible or cost prohibitive. This is because the reformer requires complex internal channels and many different materials, and must be no larger than a soda cracker. The design shown in Figure 2 requires five different materials for all the internal components.

    Figure 2: Minature refomer using printed electronics technology. (Source: EoPlex)

    Both of these examples are difficult or impossible to build with current technology. However, a breakthrough proprietary manufacturing platform that can manufacture these types of products at low cost has been developed.* The first step is to create a design with a CAD system while taking advantage of the freedom provided by new design rules. This technology enables designs that are monolithic with all internal parts built concurrently. The models are then optimized and the final designs are sliced into the number of layers required. A series of printing plates or masks is generated for each layer.

    Special materials are needed to make this process work, and the materials for these parts are selected from a catalog of proprietary printing pastes. These pastes have complex recipes and are designed to do all of the following simultaneously:

  • Print precisely-defined shapes
  • Hold high tolerances through hundreds of layers
  • Cure quickly without shrinkage to accommodate layer buildup
  • Bond to other materials where needed

    • June 13, 2008 — Twenty Albany High School (AHS) students have just completed the first year of the “NanoHigh” program, developed jointly by the City School District of Albany, New York (CSDA) and the University at Albany’s College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (CNSE). The NanoHigh program, believed to be the first initiative of its kind at a public school anywhere in the country, was designed by CSDA and CNSE to help students take advantage of new nanotechnology-related careers being created in New York’s capital region, across New York State and around the globe.

    The NanoHigh program was launched last fall, with introductory nanoscience courses taught at AHS and then brought to life with hands-on, interactive laboratory activities conducted at CNSE that utilized CNSE’s world-class Albany NanoTech Complex. (CNSE took top honors in Small Times’ 2007 University rankings.) Students tackled a variety of cutting-edge facets of nanotechnology, including nanoscale patterning and fabrication, principles of self-assembly, nanobiomedical applications, fuel cell exploration and nanoeconomics, among others.

    Based on the success of the initial classes, CSDA plans to add an advanced nanoscience course next year, as well as a middle school class related to nanotechnology.

    “This has been an outstanding experience for our students, both through the dedication and excellence of our district teachers and staff, and through our exceptional partnership with the UAlbany NanoCollege,” says CSDA superintendent Eva C. Joseph, Ed.D. “The opportunity for our students to access this one-of-a-kind educational facility and receive hands-on exposure to technology that is transforming our world is an experience that will give them a head start toward starring roles in tomorrow’s high-tech workforce.”

    Dr. Alain E. Kaloyeros, vice president and chief administrative officer of CNSE, adds, “The UAlbany NanoCollege is delighted to have had the opportunity to work with the visionary leaders in the City School District of Albany to turn the concept of NanoHigh into a pioneering program that has broken new ground in preparing the scientists of the 21st century. I especially applaud the Albany High School students who have embraced NanoHigh with passion and enthusiasm, and look forward to expanding this pilot program to reflect the rapid growth of the nanotechnology economy in the Capital Region and across New York State.”

    The success of NanoHigh also led CSDA and CNSE to host the first-ever Capital Region NanoEducation Summit on April 23, at which more than 100 teachers, administrators and school board members from throughout the region discussed preparing K-12 students for science literacy, with a focus on nanotechnology, which has been described by the National Nanotechnology Initiative as “leading to the next Industrial Revolution.”

    June 9, 2008 — Advanced nanomaterials company Angstron Materials LLC has acquired a new 22,000 square foot manufacturing facility where it will provide small to large batch processing and production capacity for its carbon-based nano-graphene platelets (NGPs), and continue its research and development efforts. Angstron’s NGPs can be blended with other nanomaterials to achieve higher loadings required for various forms of composite lamina as well as nanocomposites for load-bearing and functional applications.

    Based in Dayton, Ohio, the new facility will increase Angstron’s ability to offer customers a turnkey solution from application development and pilot quantities for test articles to scale-up for required production volumes. The company claims that NGPs can be used as an alternative to carbon nanotubes and are suited to aerospace, automotive, energy, marine, electronics, construction, medical and telecommunications applications.
    Angston announced availability of large quantities of its single atomic layer thick NGPs in April, 2008.

    “The new location gives Angstron the capability to produce tons of pristine NGP material annually,” said Dr. Bor Z. Jang, CEO of Angstron Materials, LLC. “The larger facility will allow Angstron to more effectively meet customer requirements.”

    Angstron’s engineered NPGs are available in several forms including raw materials and solutions. These solutions can achieve an exceptionally high loading and maintain uniform dispersion without degrading viscosity.
    The company promises to reduce production cost barriers with its nano-graphene solutions, and claims that NGPs are similar to nanotubes but offer improved performance properties including very high Young’s modulus, strength and surface area, superior thermal and electrical conductivity, lower density and less weight. As a result, Angstron says it is able to work with companies to develop products for batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, light weight structural components as well as electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio frequency interference (RFI), electrostatic discharge (ESD), lightning strike and composite applications.